Research Radartracking 11 published studies · 7 human · 9 clinical trials · 13 cancer pages · updated Jun 2026Open the Research Map →
Risk factor

Alcohol

Alcohol intake as a cancer risk factor.

Educational only. This page reports what published guidelines and studies describe. It is not medical advice and is not a claim that alcohol treats, prevents, or cures cancer. Decisions are yours and your care team's.

What the studies report: a cited, human-reviewed summary, kept current as the evidence changes and retracted findings are removed.

Reviewed Jun 2026 · OncoForge editorial · How we review →

Evidence at a glanceNo graded study evidence yet
436 source documents in the Alcohol corpus

last checked June 9, 2026

Key points

  • Overview: Alcohol is described in the sources as a carcinogenic exposure and a risk factor for several cancers, with evidence spanning multiple cancer sites and levels of intake. The sources also note that alcohol is commonly assessed as a modifiable exposure in cancer and liver disease research.

6 sections — tap any heading to expand its cited detail. Key points are above.

OverviewAlcohol is described in the sources as a carcinogenic exposure and a risk factor for several cancers, with evidence spanning multiple cancer sites and levels of intake. The sources also note that alcohol is commonly assessed as a modifiable exposure in cancer and liver disease research.25 points
  • Alcoholic beverages are classified by IARC as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), and alcohol is described as intake through alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits. [1]
  • Sources describe alcohol consumption as a modifiable behavioral/lifestyle exposure associated with increased risk for multiple cancers, including oral, breast, colorectal, and liver cancers. [2][3][4][5]
  • The sources describe alcohol as a cancer risk factor for several cancers, including oral cancer, laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma in the setting of steatotic liver disease, colorectal cancer, gastric cancer, breast cancer, and childhood cancers. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
  • The sources identify alcohol as a well-established modifiable risk factor for head and neck cancer, and one source states that tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption together account for 72% of head and neck cancer cases. [13]
  • One source states that an advisory describes a causal link between alcohol consumption and increased risk for at least seven cancer types, including breast cancer in women, colorectum, esophagus, voice box, liver, mouth, and throat. [14]
  • Sources describe alcohol consumption as associated with increased risk of several cancers, including breast, colorectal, laryngeal, liver, esophageal, oral, and oropharyngeal cancers. [15][16][17][18]
  • A 2024 systematic review of Mendelian randomization studies reported robust and consistent causal effects of alcohol consumption on colorectal cancer risk and liver cancer risk, and also reported alcohol consumption among the causal risk factors for gastric, pancreatic, and esophageal adenocarcinoma risks in the reviewed studies. [19]
  • Alcohol is described as an established risk factor for oral and pharyngeal cancers, and the GBD 2019 analysis assessed alcohol-attributable burden for lip, oral cavity, and other pharyngeal cancers in adults aged 20 years and older. [20]
  • For cancer of unknown primary, a 2023 review graded alcohol consumption as limited-suggestive evidence for risk. [21]
  • For breast cancer in women, one 2022 review and one 2022 Mendelian randomisation study reported alcohol consumption as linked with increased risk, and the Mendelian randomisation study also examined alcohol-related DNA methylation. [22][23]
  • One umbrella review reported suggestive evidence of a positive association between heavy alcohol consumption (>42 g/day) and gastric cancer risk. [24]
  • For stomach cancer, one meta-analysis reported a significant association between alcohol consumption and increased risk. [25]
  • Sources describe alcohol consumption as an environmental risk factor for pancreatic cancer, with evidence limited to heavy alcohol intake. [26]
  • Alcohol is described as a carcinogen associated with several cancer sites, including oropharyngeal, liver, breast, colorectal, and oesophageal cancers. [27]
  • For prostate cancer, one Mendelian randomisation study reported that the role of alcohol use remained uncertain. [27]
  • For pancreatic cancer, one meta-analysis reported that heavy drinking patterns were associated with higher risk, while light-moderate drinking patterns were associated with lower risk compared with non-drinking. [28]
  • For thyroid cancer, one meta-analysis reported lower pooled risk estimates for drinkers versus nondrinkers, but no significant dose-response relationship. [29]
  • For neuroendocrine neoplasms, one systematic review and meta-analysis reported heavy drinking as a potential risk factor for pancreatic and rectal neuroendocrine neoplasms. [30]
  • Alcohol is described as a confirmed or established risk factor for liver cancer and as a substance with a risk relationship to breast cancer, and one meta-analysis also reports an association with colorectal cancer for beer drinking. [31][32][33]
  • One meta-analysis concluded that alcohol increases risk of cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx, oesophagus, colorectum, liver, larynx and female breast. [34]
  • The 2015 meta-analysis reports that IARC listed alcohol as a carcinogen for oral cavity and pharynx, oesophagus, liver, and larynx in 1988, and added colorectum and female breast in 2010. [34]
  • The sources describe alcohol exposure as drinking alcohol, with studies comparing light, moderate, and heavy intake against nondrinkers or occasional drinkers. [34][35][36][37][38]
  • Sources describe alcohol as a risk factor for several cancers, with associations differing by cancer type and level of consumption. [39][40][41][42][43]
  • Alcohol drinking has been studied as a possible cancer risk factor in meta-analyses of cancer mortality and of several specific cancers. [44][45][46][47][48][49]
  • The provided sources report associations between alcohol and breast, pancreatic, endometrial, lung, and bladder cancer. [50][51][52][53][54]
How people are exposedThe sources describe alcohol exposure mainly as drinking alcohol or alcoholic beverages, measured by amount, frequency, duration, drinking status, or beverage type. Some sources also frame exposure in terms of specific intake thresholds or clinical categories.28 points
  • Alcohol exposure is described as drinking alcohol or alcoholic beverages, including beer, wine, and distilled spirits, with studies measuring intake by amount, frequency, duration, drinking status, or beverage type. [1][2][55][56][57][58][17][59][60][61][18][62][63][64][50][52][53][54][40][41][43][39][31][32][33][10][11][12][9]
  • Several sources describe exposure using categories such as lifetime abstention, current drinking, former drinking, ever versus never drinking, light, moderate, heavy, any drinking, non-drinkers, and non/occasional drinkers. [65][56][57][58][10][11][12][9][63][64][44][47][48][49][40][41][43][39][31][32][33][66][24][67][35][36][34][37][38][61][18][62][23][21][1][2][55][3][13][68][69][70][26][6]
  • The 2024 EASL-EASD-EASO guideline states that alcohol quantity, drinking pattern, and type of alcohol consumed should be assessed in all individuals with steatotic liver disease. [71]
  • One guideline defines limited alcohol consumption for MASLD as less than 140 grams per week for women and less than 210 grams per week for men. [72]
  • The same guideline defines MetALD as MASLD with moderate increased alcohol consumption, given as 20-50 g/day for females and 30-60 g/day for males, and defines ALD as alcohol intake greater than 50 g/day for females and greater than 60 g/day for males. [71]
  • One oral-cancer meta-analysis evaluated alcohol duration as the exposure variable and found a positive dose-response pattern with risk. [6]
  • One review notes that alcohol marketing is associated with drinking initiation and hazardous drinking in young people and alcohol use in adults. [68]
  • The oral-cancer umbrella review describes alcohol as a behavioral habit exposure and recommends reducing or eliminating alcohol consumption. [3]
  • Some studies categorized alcohol exposure as high versus low intake, heavy alcohol consumption, or alcohol consumption before and during pregnancy. [10][11][12][9]
  • The exposure route in maternal studies is prenatal exposure through alcohol consumption before or during pregnancy. [12]
  • The breast cancer cessation meta-analysis assessed alcohol intake by self-report questionnaires or interviews in cohort and case-control studies. [56]
  • One source states that alcohol is metabolized to acetaldehyde, and that acetaldehyde is one of the most likely carcinogens in alcohol. [60]
  • One source states that alcohol is first oxidized to acetaldehyde and then to acetate, and that acetaldehyde may stimulate carcinogenesis. [73]
  • The 2024 Japanese GWAS paper notes that the Global Burden of Disease study on alcohol use states that consumption should be reduced to zero to minimize health risk. [60]
  • The GBD 2019 analysis used a theoretical minimum risk exposure level for alcohol of an estimated distribution of 0 to 10 g per day. [20]
  • The breast cancer Mendelian randomisation study defined alcohol exposure as drinks per week, alcohol use disorder, problematic alcohol use, and alcohol-related blood DNA methylation markers. [23]
  • The cancer of unknown primary review identified alcohol consumption as the exposure studied in three cohort studies. [21]
  • The umbrella review defined heavy alcohol drinking as more than 42 g/day and compared it with light or non-drinking. [24]
  • The colorectal cancer meta-analysis grouped alcohol exposure as light, moderate, and heavy drinking using grams per day, with heavy drinking defined as more than 50 g/day. [67]
  • The early-onset colorectal cancer meta-analysis compared high alcohol consumption with non-drinkers. [66]
  • The 2015 meta-analysis defined light drinking as a midpoint of 12.5 g/day or less, moderate drinking as 50 g/day or less, and heavy drinking as more than 50 g/day. [34]
  • The liver cancer meta-analysis defined moderate drinking as less than 3 drinks per day and heavy drinking as 3 or more drinks per day. [35]
  • The colorectal cancer death meta-analysis defined light drinking as 12.5 g/day or less, moderate drinking as 12.6 to 49.9 g/day, and heavy drinking as 50 g/day or more. [36]
  • One review defines heavy alcohol consumption as three or more drinks per day. [50]
  • One review defines the relevant exposure as more than three drinks per day. [26]
  • One review states that alcohol consumption affects breast cancer risk through altered hormone levels, carcinogenic metabolites from ethanol metabolism, and inhibition of the one-carbon metabolism pathway. [32]
  • The sources describe alcohol exposure as alcohol consumption, including consumption during cancer treatment and history of alcohol consumption; one source also reports alcohol consumption as a risk factor for radiation-induced oral mucositis. [5][69][70]
  • In the childhood brain tumour review, alcohol consumption during pregnancy was among the factors assessed and was not associated with CBT; the review also included studies of exposures around conception, during pregnancy, and/or post-natal periods. [58]
Evidence of cancer riskAcross the cited reviews and meta-analyses, alcohol consumption is repeatedly associated with higher risk for several cancers, with stronger or more consistent findings for breast, colorectal, liver, oral cavity/pharynx, esophageal, stomach, and head and neck cancers. Some studies report dose-response patterns, while others find no clear association for specific cancer types or exposure levels.72 points
  • A 2026 meta-analysis review states that long-term ethanol exposure can dysregulate Wnt/β-catenin signaling in alcohol-related liver disease and that disruptions in this pathway are evident across stages of ALD, including progression to hepatocellular carcinoma. [74]
  • A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis reported that sustained or increasing alcohol intake from early adulthood was associated with higher overall cancer risk, and even stable light drinking carried a small increase in risk. [65]
  • The same trajectory meta-analysis reported that gastrointestinal cancers showed the strongest associations among the cancer sites it examined. [65]
  • In patients with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, the review reported no statistically significant association between moderate alcohol consumption and fibrosis progression, but it also stated that excessive alcohol consumption remained a strong risk factor for adverse outcomes and that hepatocellular carcinoma incidence increased among patients with advanced fibrosis even with light alcohol intake. [8]
  • A meta-analysis reported a dose-dependent increase in cancer risk for several organs with alcohol drinking. [1]
  • The same source states that clear patterns were initially seen for cancers of the head and neck, esophagus, liver, breast, colon, and rectum. [1]
  • A 2025 field-wide meta-analysis on gallbladder cancer listed alcohol consumption among the significant associations, but described those alcohol findings as lower-credibility evidence. [75]
  • A 2025 systematic review reported that alcohol consumption was consistently identified as a risk factor for several cancers, including breast, colorectal, and liver cancer. [2]
  • The same review concluded that higher frequency or greater quantity of alcohol intake was consistently associated with elevated risk for multiple cancers. [2]
  • A 2025 meta-analysis found alcohol use associated with early-onset colorectal cancer, with a pooled odds ratio of 1.39. [55]
  • The same meta-analysis reported a positive dose-response association between ethanol amount and early-onset colorectal cancer risk. [55]
  • An umbrella review of oral cancer found alcohol positively correlated with oral cancer risk. [3]
  • A review of hepatocellular carcinoma listed alcohol consumption among major risk factors for HCC development. [4]
  • The early-onset colorectal cancer meta-analysis reported no significant differences by gender, location, or tumour site in subgroup analyses. [9]
  • A 2025 umbrella review of gastric cancer reported that the highest category of alcohol consumption was associated with a higher risk of gastric cancer, with a relative risk of 1.25 (95% CI 1.15 to 1.36) compared with the lowest category. [10]
  • In the gastric cancer review, heavy alcohol drinkers had a higher risk than non-drinkers, while light and moderate drinkers showed no significant correlations. [10]
  • A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis reported pooled hazard ratios of 2.01 for locoregional recurrence and 2.05 for disease-free survival among patients consuming alcohol during radiotherapy with or without concomitant chemotherapy, compared with non-drinkers or low drinkers. [5]
  • The same meta-analysis reported no association with acute or delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea, but it reported a lower risk of overall nausea with a pooled odds ratio of 0.69. [5]
  • A 2025 meta-analysis of head and neck cancer studies reported alcohol consumption as one of the main risk factors for radiation-induced oral mucositis. [69]
  • A 2025 head and neck cancer meta-analysis reported that tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption together were responsible for 72% of cases. [13]
  • A 2024 meta-analysis reported that alcohol cessation compared with continuing consumption was associated with lower risk of estrogen receptor positive breast cancer, with RR 0.88 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.98). [56]
  • The breast cancer meta-analysis notes that the included studies were few and that further research is needed to establish the effect of alcohol cessation on breast cancer risk. [56]
  • A Korean systematic review of population attributable fractions found that evidence for alcohol consumption and cancer burden was limited and that estimates varied across exposure-cancer pairs. [57]
  • A 2023 systematic review and meta-analysis reported a dose-response relationship in which higher alcohol consumption levels were associated with higher overall cancer risk. [17]
  • The same 2023 meta-analysis reported that light alcohol consumption was significantly associated with esophageal, colorectal, prostate in men, and breast in women cancer risk, while heavier drinking was associated with elevated risk for nearly all evaluated cancers except thyroid and laryngeal cancers. [17]
  • A 2024 Mendelian randomization review reported alcohol consumption as a robust and consistent causal risk factor for colorectal cancer and liver cancer, and as a reported causal risk factor for gastric cancer, pancreatic cancer, and esophageal adenocarcinoma in the reviewed studies. [19]
  • A 2023 meta-analysis of breast cancer studies in Asian populations reported that alcohol consumption was associated with increased breast cancer risk. [76]
  • A 2023 meta-analysis on prostate cancer mortality and survival found no association between alcohol consumption and fatal prostate cancer incidence in healthy subjects in the main analysis, but the sensitivity analysis changed the estimate after one study was removed. [59]
  • In the GBD 2019 analysis, alcohol was one of the risk factors used to estimate attributable burden for lip, oral cavity, and other pharyngeal cancers in adults aged 20 years and older. [20]
  • The GBD 2019 analysis states that established risk factors for oral and pharyngeal cancers, including alcohol, increase cancer risk in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. [20]
  • The cancer of unknown primary review found limited suggestive evidence linking alcohol consumption with increased CUP risk. [21]
  • The 2022 breast cancer review states that alcohol consumption was significantly linked to breast cancer in 15 studies including 1,254,418 women. [22]
  • In the gastric cancer umbrella review, heavy alcohol drinking (>42 g/day) versus light or non-drinking was supported by suggestive evidence, and the authors reported no strong or highly suggestive associations overall. [24]
  • In the same umbrella review, alcohol was listed among associations that were non-significant in the prospective analysis but positive in the sensitivity analysis that included both prospective and case-control studies. [24]
  • A meta-analysis of stomach cancer studies reported a significant overall association between alcohol consumption and increased risk, with substantial heterogeneity. [25]
  • An umbrella review reported strong evidence that total alcohol consumption was positively associated with colorectal cancer risk, with a summary relative risk of 1.07 per 10 g/day. [77]
  • The same umbrella review reported strong evidence that total alcohol consumption was positively associated with postmenopausal breast cancer among current users of menopausal hormone therapy, with a summary relative risk of 1.12 per 10 g/day. [77]
  • The umbrella review reported highly suggestive evidence that alcohol consumption was positively associated with esophageal cancer in men, head and neck cancer, and liver cancer mortality. [77]
  • A meta-analysis of colorectal cancer studies reported a J-shaped association, with light or moderate alcohol consumption associated with lower risk compared with non- or occasional drinking and very heavy alcohol consumption associated with higher risk. [61]
  • The same colorectal cancer meta-analysis reported that very heavy alcohol consumption was associated with increased risk across proximal colon, distal colon, and rectal cancer sites. [61]
  • A liver cancer meta-analysis reported that more than light alcohol drinking was associated with higher liver cancer incidence and higher liver cancer mortality compared with never or light drinking. [18]
  • A prostate cancer dose-response meta-analysis found no linear association for total alcohol intake with non-aggressive or aggressive prostate cancer, but it reported a positive non-linear association at higher wine intake for aggressive prostate cancer and a positive linear association for liquor intake with non-aggressive prostate cancer. [62]
  • A review of meta-analyses on light alcohol drinking reported that light alcohol drinking was not associated with an increased risk of cancer occurrence except for breast cancer, prostate cancer, and melanoma. [78]
  • The same meta-analysis reported no significant association between alcohol consumption and nasopharyngeal carcinoma in cohort studies. [63]
  • In the pancreatic cancer review, heavy alcohol intake was associated with a relative risk from 1.22 to 1.36 and a dose-response relationship. [26]
  • The same review says the evidence for alcohol and pancreatic cancer is limited. [26]
  • A 2016 critical review reported that all levels of evidence showed a risk relationship between alcohol consumption and breast cancer, including at low levels of consumption. [32]
  • That review found 15 meta-analyses on alcohol consumption and breast cancer, and all but 2 showed a dose-response relationship. [32]
  • The review estimated that 144,000 breast cancer cases and 38,000 breast cancer deaths globally in 2012 were attributable to alcohol, with 18.8% of attributable cases and 17.5% of attributable deaths occurring among women who were light alcohol consumers. [32]
  • In that meta-analysis, heavy beer drinking of at least 2 drinks per day was associated with increased colorectal cancer risk, while light or moderate beer drinking was not. [33]
  • A meta-analysis on liver cancer reported higher risk estimates for ever drinkers in case-control studies and a dose-response pattern with increasing alcohol intake. [31]
  • The liver cancer meta-analysis also reported synergistic effects with hepatitis and diabetes, although the authors noted that this may be subject to publication bias. [31]
  • The 2015 dose-response meta-analysis reported increased cancer risk with alcohol for oral cavity and pharynx, oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma, and female breast cancer across light, moderate, and heavy drinking categories. [34]
  • The 2015 dose-response meta-analysis reported increased cancer risk with alcohol for colorectal cancer and laryngeal cancer at moderate and heavy drinking levels. [34]
  • The 2015 dose-response meta-analysis reported increased cancer risk with heavy drinking for liver, stomach, pancreas, lung, and gallbladder cancers. [34]
  • The 2015 dose-response meta-analysis found little indication of an association for melanoma and prostate cancer overall, although some subgroup analyses reported positive associations in specific settings. [34][37]
  • The colorectal adenoma meta-analysis reported a higher risk of colorectal adenoma among drinkers than among nondrinkers or occasional drinkers, with risk increasing at higher daily intake. [38]
  • The liver cancer meta-analysis reported no association for moderate drinking and a higher risk for heavy drinking compared with non-drinking. [35]
  • The colorectal cancer mortality meta-analysis reported a higher risk of death from colorectal cancer among heavy drinkers, while any, light, and moderate drinking were not clearly associated with mortality. [36]
  • A meta-analysis found no association between alcohol drinking and adult brain cancer overall, with a pooled relative risk of 0.97. [41]
  • In the same meta-analysis, moderate alcohol drinking had a relative risk of 1.01 for brain cancer and heavy drinking had a relative risk of 1.35, but the heavy-drinking estimate had a wide confidence interval. [41]
  • A meta-analysis of light drinking found increased relative risks for oropharyngeal cancer, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, and female breast cancer. [40]
  • A systematic review reported that moderate to heavy alcohol consumption increases the risk of several cancers, including cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, esophagus, stomach, larynx, colorectum, central nervous system, pancreas, breast, and prostate. [39]
  • In a meta-analysis of 18 cohort studies, heavy drinking was associated with higher all-cancer mortality, with a pooled relative risk of 1.31 compared with non/occasional drinkers. [44]
  • The same meta-analysis reported a J-shaped relationship between all-cancer mortality and alcohol consumption in males, but not in females. [44]
  • For prostate cancer, a meta-analysis reported an overall relative risk of 1.06 for any alcohol drinking versus non/occasional drinking, but concluded that there was no evidence of a material association. [47]
  • For bladder cancer, a meta-analysis reported pooled relative risks of 1.00 for moderate drinking and 1.02 for heavy drinking versus non-drinkers, and concluded that there was no material association. [48]
  • For breast cancer, a 2012 meta-analysis reported about a 4% increase in risk at intakes of up to one alcoholic drink per day and a 40% to 50% increase with three or more drinks per day. [50]
  • For pancreatic cancer, a 2010 meta-analysis reported no increase with less than 3 drinks per day but an increased risk with 3 or more drinks per day. [53]
  • For endometrial cancer, a 2011 meta-analysis found no overall association with alcohol intake, but liquor consumption was associated with increased risk in stratified analyses. [52]
  • For lung cancer in never smokers, a 2011 meta-analysis found no association with alcohol consumption. [51]
  • For bladder cancer, a 2010 meta-analysis found no association with overall alcohol intake. [54]
Who is most at riskThe sources do not identify one universal population group at highest alcohol-related cancer risk across all cancers. Reported subgroup patterns vary by cancer type, sex, age, region, co-exposures, and drinking level.29 points
  • The 2025 Latin American guideline recommends complete alcohol abstinence for patients with significant fibrosis, and the 2024 EASL-EASD-EASO guideline notes that current drinking pattern may not reflect previous drinking behavior. [72][71]
  • In hepatocellular carcinoma, the meta-analysis reported much higher odds ratios when alcohol use occurred together with HBV or HCV infection than for alcohol alone as discussed in that paper. [79]
  • The systematic review on U.S. adults states that race/ethnicity and age were the most frequently mentioned individual risk factors in the alcohol-and-cancer literature it reviewed, and that obesity, alcoholic liver disease, and diabetes were among the comorbid conditions discussed in relation to alcohol-associated cancer risk. [2]
  • The gastric cancer review reports that the association with alcohol consumption was examined in Asian and non-Asian regions, but the excerpt provided does not give region-specific alcohol estimates. [10]
  • The early-onset colorectal cancer meta-analysis found no significant differences across gender, location, or tumour site. [9]
  • The breast cancer cessation meta-analysis included studies in postmenopausal women and in women aged 40 to 79 years. [56]
  • The childhood brain tumour review included studies of children below 20 years old at diagnosis. [58]
  • The Korean review reports that population attributable fraction estimates for smoking and alcohol consumption were higher in men than in women. [57]
  • The 2023 prostate cancer review states that nearly half of prostate cancer patients in the cited survey were light or moderate drinkers and a small proportion were heavy drinkers. [59]
  • The 2023 breast cancer meta-analysis was limited to Asian populations, and the 2023 prostate cancer review focused on prostate cancer mortality, survival, and related outcomes rather than incidence alone. [76][59]
  • The GBD 2019 analysis reported that the burden attributable to alcohol was estimated for adults aged 20 years and older. [20]
  • The cancer of unknown primary review did not identify studies on racial groups, ethnicity, radiation exposure, environmental pollutants, hormonal factors, or reproductive factors for alcohol-related CUP risk. [21]
  • The gastric cancer umbrella review states that the positive association for heavy alcohol drinking was based on prospective primary studies, and only one of the primary studies reported adjustment for Helicobacter pylori infection. [24]
  • The esophageal cancer prediction-model review listed alcohol consumption among commonly used predictors in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma models, with a frequency of 75%, and reported that alcohol consumption was included in all esophageal squamous cell carcinoma models in some studies. [80]
  • The oral cancer systematic review listed alcohol consumption as a risk factor that dental hygienists were expected to recognize, but this was a knowledge item in a survey review rather than a risk estimate. [81]
  • The umbrella review reported that alcohol-related associations showed evidence of small study effects and excess significance bias in a notable fraction of meta-analyses. [77]
  • The colorectal cancer meta-analysis reported no evidence that age, smoking, body mass index, or family history modified the alcohol-colorectal cancer association. [61]
  • The sources report stronger positive associations for alcohol and nasopharyngeal carcinoma in subgroup analyses with high-quality studies, hospital-based controls, and adjustment for confounding factors, smoking, age, and sex. [63]
  • One source reports that the alcohol-metabolism polymorphism ADH1B Arg47His showed different associations by ethnicity, with decreased overall cancer risk in Asians and mixed ethnic groups but increased risk in Caucasians under some genetic models. [73]
  • The pancreatic cancer review does not identify a specific population subgroup for alcohol-related risk beyond heavy drinkers. [26]
  • The liver cancer meta-analysis reported synergistic effects of alcohol with hepatitis and diabetes on liver cancer risk. [31]
  • The breast cancer review reported that the alcohol-related burden included women who were light alcohol consumers. [32]
  • The 2015 meta-analysis reported that the association between alcohol and colorectal cancer was stronger in men than in women, and no significant detrimental effect was observed in women. [34]
  • The 2015 meta-analysis reported that the effect of light drinking on oral cavity and pharynx cancer and oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma was statistically significant only in Asian populations. [34]
  • The 2015 meta-analysis reported that melanoma and prostate cancer associations were statistically significant only in studies conducted in North America. [34]
  • The colorectal cancer mortality meta-analysis reported a higher estimate for heavy drinkers in men than in women. [36]
  • These sources mainly report differences by cancer type and drinking level, although some also include subgroup analyses such as ER status, timing of alcohol consumption, study setting, and region. [40][41][43][39][42]
  • The all-cancer mortality meta-analysis reported a higher risk for former drinkers than for current drinkers. [44]
  • The 2012 breast cancer review states that women at elevated risk for breast cancer should avoid alcohol or consume it only occasionally. [50]
Reducing exposureSeveral sources recommend limiting or avoiding alcohol exposure, with some calling for complete abstinence in higher-risk liver disease settings and others advising reduced intake or zero consumption for prevention. Other sources focus on assessment, counseling, or policy measures rather than a specific reduction target.16 points
  • The 2025 Latin American guideline recommends complete alcohol abstinence for patients with significant fibrosis. [72]
  • The 2024 EASL-EASD-EASO guideline recommends that the quantity, drinking pattern, and type of alcohol consumed be assessed in all individuals with steatotic liver disease. [71]
  • The trajectory meta-analysis states that individuals reducing heavy drinking later in life remained at increased cancer risk, suggesting that early alcohol-related damage may not be fully reversible. [65]
  • The MASLD meta-analysis states that its findings support clinical recommendations for total abstinence, particularly in patients with established fibrosis, to prevent progression to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. [8]
  • One review states that the WHO advocates stringent restrictions on alcohol marketing to reduce the global burden of non-communicable diseases. [68]
  • The hepatocellular carcinoma meta-analysis concludes that reducing alcohol consumption is important in the setting of viral hepatitis. [79]
  • The oral-cancer umbrella review states that reducing or eliminating alcohol consumption may reduce oral cancer risk. [3]
  • The childhood cancer meta-analysis states that health policies should aim to promote abstinence from alcohol during pregnancy, and that healthcare providers should provide education and counseling about alcohol use during prenatal care visits. [12]
  • One source describes alcohol consumption as a modifiable risk factor and says it is considered an important target for primary cancer prevention. [5]
  • The colorectal cancer review states that health-conscious habits include avoiding tobacco and moderating alcohol. [82]
  • One source states that alcohol cessation compared with continuing consumption was associated with lower risk of ER+ breast cancer, and that further research is needed to corroborate the findings. [56]
  • A Korean systematic review suggests that findings on alcohol-related cancer burden may be used to prioritize strategies to reduce cancer burden, while also calling for further updated assessments. [57]
  • One source states that there is no safe level of alcohol consumption associated with cancer risk and supports public health interventions to reduce alcohol consumption. [17][60]
  • The 2023 meta-analysis also states that the fourth edition of the European Code Against Cancer recommends limiting alcohol intake if alcohol is consumed. [17]
  • The GBD 2019 analysis used 0 to 10 g per day as the theoretical minimum risk exposure level for alcohol in its population attributable fraction model. [20]
  • The sources suggest limiting alcohol intake, with the breast cancer review stating that women should not exceed one drink per day. [50]
What we don't know yetEvidence on alcohol and cancer remains uneven across cancer types, with several reviews and meta-analyses noting inconsistency, limited data, heterogeneity, or possible bias. Many sources also say that key dose-response patterns, mechanisms, and subgroup differences are still not fully resolved.40 points
  • Alcohol-associated hepatocarcinogenesis involves multiple mechanisms, including oxidative stress, inflammation, fibrosis, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling, but the contribution of each mechanism to cancer risk is not quantified. [74]
  • MetALD is described as a distinct entity, and recommendations generated for “pure” NAFLD may not apply to it. [71]
  • Evidence on life-course alcohol consumption trajectories remains inconsistent. [65]
  • Quantitative dose-response relationships for key alcohol exposure variables in oral cancer remain unclear. [6]
  • There is high heterogeneity across studies for moderate alcohol consumption and liver outcomes. [8]
  • Smoking and alcohol consumption are recognized as major risk factors for laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma development. [7]
  • Current data on younger oral tongue cancer cohorts are insufficient to form definitive conclusions. [83]
  • Further high-quality prospective studies are needed to validate emerging associations, including alcohol-related ones, in gallbladder cancer research. [75]
  • The topic of wine and lung cancer is described as ambiguous, with a call for further research on subgroup differences. [1]
  • The sources do not establish a uniform threshold below which alcohol consumption is free of cancer risk. [2]
  • More research is needed to confirm the findings on early-onset colorectal cancer. [9]
  • Further research is needed to understand mechanisms and possible differences in risk across cancer types in childhood cancer. [12]
  • The gastric cancer umbrella review used GRADE to evaluate certainty of evidence across associations. [10]
  • The effects of alcohol on chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapies are less well understood, and publication bias cannot be ruled out for the pooled analyses, especially for alcohol during radiotherapy and for locoregional recurrence, disease-free survival, and overall nausea. [5]
  • It is unclear whether differences in the amount of alcohol consumed before or after cessation influenced the breast cancer association, and the reasons people quit drinking were not available. [56]
  • The aetiology of childhood brain tumours remains poorly understood. [58]
  • There is limited evidence for other exposures and cancers beyond the pairs summarized in the Korean review. [57]
  • The evidence on alcohol intake and prostate cancer is still inconclusive. [59]
  • The 2023 glioblastoma meta-analysis reported a protective association for alcohol consumption and glioblastoma risk, but the limited number of studies prevented behavioral recommendations. [84]
  • Larger, well-designed Mendelian randomization studies are needed to determine causal status more clearly. [19]
  • The alcohol evidence base for cancer of unknown primary was limited to three cohort studies, and some unexplained heterogeneity may be present. [21]
  • In the breast cancer Mendelian randomisation study, observational associations were consistent across menopausal and hormone receptor subgroups, but some subgroup results were not significant because of limited sample size and events. [23]
  • Additional studies are needed to corroborate the breast cancer review findings. [22]
  • Some sources describe limited or uncertain evidence for certain alcohol-cancer associations, note potential bias in nutritional epidemiology, and report that findings vary across cancer types. [77][85][78]
  • Evidence is inconsistent across study designs for nasopharyngeal carcinoma, with cohort studies showing no significant association and case-control studies showing increased probability in some drinking categories. [63]
  • The association between the ADH1B Arg47His polymorphism and cancer risk was inconclusive in the literature before the updated meta-analysis. [73]
  • The evidence for alcohol in pancreatic cancer is limited, and the provided sources do not include an IARC classification for alcohol in relation to pancreatic cancer. [26]
  • More research with improved control of confounding and actual measurement of beer consumption is needed. [33]
  • Further studies on the synergistic effects of alcohol with other major risk factors are warranted in liver cancer. [31]
  • Results for stomach, pancreas, and prostate cancer were still conflicting in the literature. [34]
  • The 2014 liver cancer meta-analysis cautions that its findings should be interpreted carefully because of possible limitations in the original studies. [35]
  • Residual confounding by sun exposure cannot be ruled out in the 2014 melanoma meta-analysis. [37]
  • The colorectal adenoma meta-analysis reported stronger associations in European studies than in studies from the United States and Asia. [38]
  • The colorectal cancer mortality meta-analysis reported a J-shaped dose-response relationship. [36]
  • A potential effect of high alcohol doses in brain cancer deserves further study. [41]
  • The extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma meta-analysis reported no association with alcohol consumption and called for further population-based studies, particularly cohort studies. [42]
  • The breast-cancer survival meta-analysis reported that alcohol consumption was not associated with increased breast cancer mortality or recurrence overall, while also noting a possible dose-response pattern and increased mortality above 20 g/day. [43]
  • The sources are inconsistent across cancer types, with some meta-analyses reporting increased risk for certain cancers and others reporting no association for brain cancer, extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, or breast cancer survival outcomes. [40][41][43][42][39]
  • Alcohol-related cancer findings are inconsistent for some cancer types, and future studies should examine whether endometrial cancer associations vary by beverage type. [51][52][54]
  • Possible mechanisms in breast cancer include higher estrogen levels, acetaldehyde, oxidative stress, epigenetic changes, and reduced retinoic acid concentrations. [50]

Sources

Every statement above is drawn from these reviewed sources. This page reports what they describe. Sources last checked June 9, 2026.

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  2. Systematic reviewA systematic review on the risk of developing cancer and frequency of alcohol consumption behaviors in US adults · 2025
  3. Systematic reviewAssociations of lifestyle factors with oral cancer risk: An umbrella review · 2025
  4. Meta-analysisEfficacy and Safety of Lenvatinib versus Atezolizumab Plus Bevacizumab in the Treatment of Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · 2025
  5. Meta-analysisEffect of alcohol consumption on oncological treatment effectiveness and toxicity in patients with cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis · 2025
  6. Systematic reviewEvaluation of dose-response relationships between smoking tobacco, alcohol consumption and oral cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis · 2026
  7. Systematic reviewLaryngeal squamous cell carcinoma: a functional "two-hit" model of papillomavirus-Epstein-Barr virus synergistic carcinogenesis · 2026
  8. Systematic reviewModerate alcohol consumption and clinical outcomes in MASLD: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohorts · 2026
  9. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and risk of early onset colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis · 2025
  10. Meta-analysisEnvironmental Protective and Risk Factors for Gastric Cancer: An Umbrella Review and Reanalysis of Meta-Analyses · 2025
  11. Systematic reviewDietary factors associated with breast cancer among women in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies · 2025
  12. Meta-analysisMaternal Alcohol Consumption and Risk of Childhood Cancers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · 2025
  13. Meta-analysisAdherence to the Mediterranean Diet and the Risk of Head and Neck Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies · 2025
  14. Systematic reviewObesity after Natural disasters and Associated Risk Factors: A Systematic Review · 2025
  15. Systematic reviewAlcohol consumption and its association with cancer, cardiovascular, liver and brain diseases: a systematic review of Mendelian randomization studies · 2024
  16. Systematic reviewModifiable Risk Factors for Breast Cancer: Insights From Systematic Reviews · 2025
  17. Meta-analysisCancer risk based on alcohol consumption levels: a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis · 2023
  18. Meta-analysisSystematic Review with Meta-Analysis: Low-Level Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Liver Cancer · 2020
  19. Systematic reviewAn atlas on risk factors for gastrointestinal cancers: A systematic review of Mendelian randomization studies · 2024
  20. Systematic reviewThe Global, Regional, and National Burden of Adult Lip, Oral, and Pharyngeal Cancer in 204 Countries and Territories: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 · 2023
  21. Systematic reviewRisk factors for cancer of unknown primary: a literature review · 2023
  22. Meta-analysisRisk factors for breast cancer in women: an update review · 2022
  23. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption, blood DNA methylation and breast cancer: a Mendelian randomisation study · 2022
  24. Systematic reviewDiet and Risk of Gastric Cancer: An Umbrella Review · 2022
  25. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and risk of stomach cancer: A meta-analysis · 2021
  26. Systematic reviewEpidemiology and risk factors of pancreatic cancer · 2018
  27. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and prostate cancer incidence and progression: A Mendelian randomisation study · 2017
  28. Meta-analysisDietary Patterns and Pancreatic Cancer Risk: A Meta-Analysis · 2017
  29. Meta-analysisA meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and thyroid cancer risk · 2016
  30. Meta-analysisRisk factors for neuroendocrine neoplasms: a systematic review and meta-analysis · 2016
  31. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and liver cancer risk: a meta-analysis · 2015
  32. Meta-analysisAlcohol Use and Breast Cancer: A Critical Review · 2016
  33. Meta-analysisConsumption of beer and colorectal cancer incidence: a meta-analysis of observational studies · 2015
  34. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and site-specific cancer risk: a comprehensive dose-response meta-analysis · 2015
  35. Meta-analysisAlcohol and liver cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies · 2014
  36. Meta-analysisAlcohol drinking and the risk of colorectal cancer death: a meta-analysis · 2014
  37. Meta-analysisAlcohol drinking and cutaneous melanoma risk: a systematic review and dose-risk meta-analysis · 2014
  38. Meta-analysisSystematic review with meta-analysis: alcohol consumption and the risk of colorectal adenoma · 2014
  39. Systematic reviewAlcohol consumption and risk of cancer: a systematic literature review · 2013
  40. Meta-analysisLight alcohol drinking and cancer: a meta-analysis · 2013
  41. Meta-analysisA meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of brain tumours · 2013
  42. Meta-analysisSmoking, alcohol consumption, and the risk of extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma: a meta-analysis · 2013
  43. Meta-analysisAlcohol Consumption and Breast Cancer Survival: A Meta- analysis of Cohort Studies · 2013
  44. Meta-analysisAlcohol drinking and all cancer mortality: a meta-analysis · 2013
  45. Systematic reviewDietary patterns and colorectal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis · 2012
  46. Meta-analysisMenarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies · 2012
  47. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the dose-risk relation · 2012
  48. Meta-analysisAlcohol drinking and bladder cancer risk: a meta-analysis · 2012
  49. Meta-analysisAlcohol drinking and risk of renal cell carcinoma: results of a meta-analysis · 2012
  50. Meta-analysisEpidemiology and pathophysiology of alcohol and breast cancer: Update 2012 · 2012
  51. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and lung cancer risk in never smokers: a meta-analysis · 2011
  52. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption and the risk of endometrial cancer: a meta-analysis · 2011
  53. Meta-analysisAlcohol drinking and pancreatic cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the dose-risk relation · 2010
  54. Meta-analysisA meta-analysis of alcohol intake and risk of bladder cancer · 2010
  55. Meta-analysisAssociations of Alcohol Use and Smoking With Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · 2025
  56. Meta-analysisAlcohol cessation and breast cancer risk stratified by hormone receptor status · 2024
  57. Systematic reviewPopulation attributable fractions of modifiable cancer risk factors in Korea: A systematic review · 2024
  58. Meta-analysisRisk factors for childhood brain tumours: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies from 1976 to 2022 · 2024
  59. Meta-analysisAssociation between Alcohol Intake and Prostate Cancer Mortality and Survival · 2023
  60. Meta-analysisGenetic architecture of alcohol consumption identified by a genotype-stratified GWAS and impact on esophageal cancer risk in Japanese people · 2024
  61. Meta-analysisMeta-analysis of 16 studies of the association of alcohol with colorectal cancer · 2020
  62. Meta-analysisAlcohol Consumption and the Risk of Prostate Cancer: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis · 2020
  63. Meta-analysisAssociation Between Alcohol Consumption and Risk of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Epidemiological Studies · 2019
  64. Meta-analysisAssociation between Alcohol Consumption and Survival in Colorectal Cancer: A Meta-analysis · 2019
  65. Meta-analysisAlcohol Consumption Trajectories from Early Adulthood to Adulthood and Cancer Risk in Adulthood: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis · 2026
  66. Meta-analysisRisk Factors for Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis · 2022
  67. Meta-analysisAlcohol consumption, DNA methylation and colorectal cancer risk: Results from pooled cohort studies and Mendelian randomization analysis · 2022
  68. Meta-analysisImpact of food, beverage, and alcohol brand marketing on consumptive behaviors and health in children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis · 2025
  69. Meta-analysisThe prevalence of oral mucositis after radiotherapy in patients with Head and Neck Cancer and its associated factors: a meta-analysis · 2025
  70. Systematic reviewRisk prediction model for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting in cancer patients: a systematic review · 2025
  71. GuidelineEASL-EASD-EASO Clinical Practice Guidelines on the Management of Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD) · 2024
  72. GuidelineUpdated recommendations for the management of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) by the Latin American working group · 2025
  73. Meta-analysisAssociation of ADH1B Arg47His polymorphism with the risk of cancer: a meta-analysis · 2019
  74. Systematic reviewAlcohol-Associated Hepatocarcinogenesis: Wnt/β-Catenin in Action · 2026
  75. Meta-analysisEnvironmental Risk Factors for Gallbladder Cancer: Field-Wide Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · 2025
  76. Meta-analysisAssociation of food groups and dietary pattern with breast cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis · 2023
  77. Meta-analysisAn umbrella review of the evidence associating diet and cancer risk at 11 anatomical sites · 2021
  78. Meta-analysisLight Alcohol Drinking and the Risk of Cancer Development: A Controversial Relationship · 2020
  79. Meta-analysisInteraction Between Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and Alcohol in the Development of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · 2025
  80. Systematic reviewRisk prediction models for esophageal cancer: A systematic review and critical appraisal · 2021
  81. Systematic reviewCurrent knowledge, attitude and practice among dental hygienists in oral cancer awareness: Systematic review · 2022
  82. Systematic reviewDietary-Lifestyle Patterns and Colorectal Cancer Risk: Global Cancer Update Programme (CUP Global) Systematic Literature Review · 2025
  83. Meta-analysisEpidemiological trends and characteristics of oral tongue cancer in females: systematic review and meta-analysis · 2026
  84. Meta-analysisModifiable risk factors for glioblastoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis · 2023
  85. Systematic reviewEvidence Update on the Relationship between Diet and the Most Common Cancers from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Study: A Systematic Review · 2021

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